Blood Volume in animals Blood Volume in animals makes up about 6 to 8% of the body weight. Blood volume measurement plays an important role when blood transfusion is attempted. It is also important to interpret PCV, Hb, RBC, and hematological parameters. These values are altered when the blood volume changes  e.g. hemoconcentration and hemodilution. Blood volume is influenced […]

Blood groups Blood is divided into different groups based on the type of antigen present in the cells. The blood group antigen are glycolipids or glycoproteins having a molecular weight of 20,000 to 30,000 present on the surface of the erythrocytes. The antigens are highly specific and the specificity of the antigens appears to depend

Prevention of blood clotting in blood vessels The important factors that prevent the process of clotting within the vascular system are: Smooth endothelium, which prevents contact activation of intrinsic system Glycocalyx layer adsorbed to the inner surface of the endothelium that repels clotting factors and platelets Protein bound with endothelium which binds thrombin and removes

Blood coagulation or blood clotting in animals Many substances present in tissue and blood affect coagulation. Substances that promote coagulation are called as procoagulants‚ and those inhibiting coagulation are anticoagulants. Three stages of clot formation Formation of prothrombin activator in response to rupture of blood vessel or damage to the blood itself. Conversion of prothrombin

Hemostasis and Vascular spasm in animals Hemostasis Hemostasis means prevention of blood loss from damaged vessels. Mechanism of hemostasis- Vascular spasm Formation of platelet plug Blood coagulation and organization of fibrous tissue. Vascular spasm Injury or trauma to the blood vessels stimulates reflex constriction of the blood vessels through the sympathetic division or the local

Platelets or thrombocytes in animals Platelets or thrombocytes in animals are disk-shaped structures, derived from the megakaryocytes of the bone marrow. Mammalian platelets are non-nucleated, whereas they are nucleated in birds and reptiles. In mammals, platelets originate from the megakaryocytes of the bone marrow and In birds they arise from large mononucleated cells of bone

Antibodies in animals Antibodies are the gamma globulins or immunoglobulins made up of a combination of light and heavy polypeptide chains. Each heavy chain is paralleled by a light chain at one of its end, which form the variable portion. This variable region with both light and heavy chains provides very specific binding site to

Active Immunity in animals Active immunity involves both the cell-mediated and humoral immunity as well as the innate immune system. Active immunity is induced in the host itself by the antigen, and lasts for a longer period of time. Types of active immunity Naturally acquired active immunity Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when an individual

Immunity in Animals Immunity is the ability of the body to resist the tissue damage by destroying the disease organisms or neutralizing their toxins. Types of immunity There are two types of immunity present in animals- Innate immunity and Acquired immunity. Innate immunity This type of immunity is present from birth. This type of immunity is

Plasma Cells in animals Plasma cells are white blood cells which produce large volumes of antibodies. They are transported by the blood plasma and the lymphatic system and originate from the bone marrow. They are otherwise known as plasma B cells , plasmocytes , and effector B cells. They are present in lymph nodes ,spleen